ABCs of LGBTQIA+ Representation in the Greek and Roman World:
101 People from Mythology and History to Know
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Introduction
This is by no
means comprehensive or complete. The following 101 people are among those who
provide important representation and visibility to topics of gender and
sexuality in the ancient Greco-Roman
world. Some of these entries contain difficult material (e.g., misogyny, rape,
etc.) which may not be suitable for all classrooms.
It is important
to note that the spectrum of sexuality in the ancient Greco-Roman world was
constructed differently than it is in modern times, and there will be no direct
equivalent for terms like “gay,” “straight,” etc. Similarly, terms like mollis,
puer, and tribas will not have a direct modern equivalents.
Therefore each entry will be listed without a modern label; instead, primary
sources will be listed for the reader to continue researching any particular
topic of interest.
Achilles:
Achilles was a larger-than-life mythical hero of the Trojan War whose amatory partners
included his concubine Briseis, Princess of Scyros Deidamia (with whom he had
Neoptolemus / Pyrrhus), Trojan Princess Polyxena, Amazon warrior Penthesilea,
and his life-long lover Patroclus. Known as the “best of the Achaeans,”
Achilles was not only famous for his military prowess but also for his unique
childhood, as he spent his teen years both studying with Patroclus under the
tutelage of the centaur Chiron as well as living on the island of Scyros
disguised as a girl. His relationship with Patroclus was praised for centuries
as the pinnacle of lifelong love, with figures such as Alexander the
Great, the Emperor Hadrian, and Emperor Caracalla making offering
at his tomb with their respective partners.
The story of
Achilles can help students better understand complex topics like the treatment
of women in the ancient world, wartime rape, slavery, gender roles, and sexuality.
Sources: Excidium Troiae; Homer, Iliad;
Maximus of Tyre, Dissertation VIII; Plato, Symposium 179-180;
Statius, Achilleid, etc.
YA Novel Recommendations:
* Balmer, Josephine. The Paths of Survival.
* Deane, Maya. Wrath Goddess Sing.
* Miller, Madeline. The Song of Achilles **May contain unsuitable material**
* Parmar, Shivani. Achilles & Patroclus: A Moment of Peace in a Lifetime of War.
* Roberts, H. M. Prophecy of Achilles.
* Thompson, Ryan. Achilles: Making of a Hero.
* Yourcenar, Marguerite. Fires.
Admetus:
According to mythology, Admetus was a
Thessalian king and lover of Apollo. As a show of his love and devotion, Apollo
allowed Admetus to be spared from death if he could find a willing substitute
to die in his place. Admetus' wife, Alcestis, sacrificed herself to save his life,
but she was brought back to life by Hercules.
The story of Admetus can help students understand the nature of
gender and sexuality in the ancient Greco-Roman world.
Sources: Callimachus, Hymn to Apollo; Tibullus, Carm.
II.3.11ff
YA Novel Recommendations:
Aetaetus:
According to Phlegon of Tralles, Aetetus was given the name Aetaeta at
birth, but then “transformed from a woman into a man.” Phlegon was able to interview Aetetus and
verify his story.
The story of
Aetaetus can help students better understand the complexity of gender in the
ancient Greco-Roman world.
Source: Phlegon of Tralles, de Mirabilibus
IX
YA Novel Recommendations:
Alexander the Great:
Alexander the Great was a larger-than-life historic figure of the 4th century BCE who built an empire extending throughout Greece, Egypt and parts of Asia.
Alexander was enamored by lore of the Trojan War, and declared his love for his
lover Hephaestion by sacrificing at the tomb of Achilles and Patroclus.
The story of
Alexander can help students better understand the complexity of wartime
violence, culture clashes and xenophobia, the appropriation of history and
propaganda, as well as gender and sexuality.
Sources: Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander I.xii; Quintus Curtius Rufus, Alexander III.xii.15ff.
YA Novel Recommendations:
* Graham, Jo. Stealing Fire.
* Renault, Mary. Fire From Heaven
* Renault, Mary. The Persian Boy. **May contain unsuitable material**
* Tarr, Judith. Lord of the Two Lands **May contain unsuitable material**
Allia Potestas:
Allia Potestas was a Roman
woman who lived during the 3rd century CE. Her lengthy funerary
inscription praises her long, industrious life that she shared with her two
lovers. The three of them “shared a single heart, and a single home.”
The study of Allia Potestas can help students understand the
complexity of marriage and sexuality in the ancient Roman world.
Source: CIL VI.37965
YA Novel Recommendations:
Amazons:
Legendary warrior women known for their military prowess, Amazons were
often either exaggerated caricatures or oversexualized women. The nature of an
Amazon woman often changed to fit the author’s purpose; they can be seen as
brave warriors whose valor puts male fighters to shame (such as Camilla
in Vergil’s Aeneid XI and Penthesilea in Quintus of Smyrna’s Posthomerica
I), angry men-killing monsters (such as Hipsypyle in Apollodorus’ depiction of
the myth of the Argonauts in the Library), guardians of chastity (as
seen in Propertius Elegy iv.4.69ff ) or a voyeuristic display of
same-sex desire (as seen in numerous vase paintings, particularly Beazley
200860 / Athenian Museum 15002).
The story of the
Amazons can help students better understand the complexity of gender, bias, and
misogyny in the ancient Greco-Roman world.
Sources: Adrienne Mayor’s Amazons: Lives and
Legends of Warrior Women from Across the Ancient Word (2014)
YA Novel Recommendations:
* Deane, Maya. Wrath Goddess Sing.
* Coombe, Clare. Camilla.
* Hoffman, Alice. The Foretelling.
* Lawrence, Caroline. Queen of the Silver Arrow.
* Lynn, Hannah. Queens of Themiscyra
* O'Connor, George. Artemis: The Wild Goddess of the Hunt.
* Pressfield, Steven. Last of the Amazons
* Renault, Mary. The Bull From the Sea
Ampelos:
According to Greek mythology, Ampelos was a satyr whose name meant
“vine.” In book 10 of Nonnus’ Dionysiaca, the god Dionysus / Bacchus
fell in love with Ampelos and courted him, offering marriage. When Ampelos died
tragically, Dionysus transformed his body into a grapevine.
The story of
Ampelos can help students better understand the concept of dangerous beauty,
predation and assault, gender, and sexuality in the ancient Greco-Roman world.
Sources: Nonnus, Dionysiaca X; Ovid, Fasti
III.409ff
YA Novel Recommendations:
* O'Connor, George. The Olympians: Dionysus, the New God.
Androgynos / ἀνδρόγυνος:
A compound word of andro- (man) and gyne
(woman), this term is complex and has various meanings. The author Livy used this term strictly for
intersex children, but Phlegon of Tralles used the word as an umbrella
term for people of extraordinary sex, making no differentiation between what
modern readers would consider intersex and transgender people. In the early
days of Roman history, intersex children were seen as bad omens and put to
death; however, by the time of the high empire, they would often be sold into
the sex trade. There are, however, several stories of intersex Romans who lived
successful and fulfilling lives, including the philosopher Favorinus.
The discussion of
the term androgynos can help students better understand the complex relationship between sex and gender.
Sources: Julius Obsequens, Prodigiorum Liber;
Livy, Ab Urbe Condita (passim); Phlegon of Tralles, de Mirabilibus,
Pliny the Elder, Natural History VII.34
YA Novel Recommendations:
Antinous:
Antinous was the famous lover of the Roman Emperor Hadrian who died tragically
and mysteriously while the couple traveled throughout Egypt in 130 CE. Utterly
destroyed by the death of his lover, the emperor erected the city Antinoopolis at
the site of his death and had the young man deified. Although their
relationship was romanticized in the ancient world, modern readers may see
their disparity in social classes negating the consent of the relationship.
The story of
Antinous can help students better understand the concept of dangerous beauty,
social class and consent, as well as gender and sexuality in the ancient Roman
world.
Sources: Cassius Dio, Epitome lxix.11; Epitome
de Caesaribus xiv; SHA Vita Hadriani xiv
YA Novel Recommendations:
* Goodloe, Abbe Carter. Antinous: A Tragedy (1891).
* Yourcenar, Marguerite. Memoirs of Hadrian
Apollo:
Apollo was a god highlighting the benefits of civilization (art, music, prophecy, and light)
who was notoriously unlucky in love. Although there are dozens of myths
detailing Apollo’s failed attempts at love, he as most known for his pursuit of
the asexual nymph Daphne and the tragic death of his lover Hyacinthos/ Hyacinthus.
The stories of
Apollo can help students better understand the concept of dangerous beauty,
consent, gender and sexuality in the ancient world.
Sources: Hyginus, Fabulae 271; Lucian, Dialogue
of the Gods xiv, xvii, xix; Ovid, Metamorphoses I.453ff; Vatican Mythographers I.115
YA Novel Recommendations:
Bailey, Nicole. Apollo Ascending: Veil of Gods and Kings **May contain unsuitable material for younger readers**
* Bailey, Nicole. Apollo Ascending 2: A Crown of Hopes and Sorrows. **May contain unsuitable material for younger readers*
* Bailey, Nicole. Apollo Ascending 3: A Shield of Fate and Ruin. **May contain unsuitable material for younger readers**
* Bailey, Nicole. Apollo Ascending 4: A Spark of Death and Fury. **May contain unsuitable material for younger readers**
*Beutner, Katherine. Alcestis **May contain unsuitable material for younger readers**
* O'Connor, George. Olympians: Apollo, The Brilliant One.
* Riordan, Rick. The Trials of Apollo: The Hidden Oracle.
* Riordan, Rick. The Trials of Apollo: The Dark Prophecy.
* Riordan, Rick. The Trials of Apollo: The Burning Maze.
* Riordan, Rick. The Trials of Apollo: The Tyrant's Tomb.
* Riordan, Rick. The Trials of Apollo: The Tower of Nero.
Ares / Mars:
Known as the god of warfare, Ares / Mars was known for his longstanding
relationship with the goddess of love, Aphrodite / Venus. According to Ovid,
when his mother Hera/Juno was jealous that her husband Zeus / Jupiter
had a motherless birth [Athena/Minerva], she asked Chloris/Flora
to help her have a fatherless birth; according to this version of the myth,
Ares was the result of a parthenogenic birth.
The story of
Ares/Mars can help students better understand the complexity of gender and birth in the ancient Greco-Roman world.
Sources: Ovid, Fasti V.229ff.
YA Novel Recommendations:
Aristogeiton:
Along with his lovers Harmodius and Leaena, Aristogeiton
plotted to assassinate the Athenian tyrant Hippias in 514 BCE. This act was
seen in later years as a defense of liberty and democracy, and the love between
Harmodius and Aristogeiton was praised as the pinnacle of love and devotion.
The story of
Harmodius and Aristogeiton can help students better understand the concept of
love, duty, ethics, gender and sexuality in the ancient world.
Sources:
Hyginus, Fabulae 257; Maximus of Tyre, Dissertation VIII;
Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War. VI.51ff; Valerius Maximus,
Memorable Deeds and Sayings, II.x.ext.1
YA Novel Recommendations:
Artemis / Diana:
As the virgin goddess of the hunt and chase, Artemis / Diana was a perfect
example of the conflicting treatment of women’s sexuality in the ancient
Greco-Roman world. She was seen as the protector of women and children (as seen
in her portrayal in Apollodorus’ Library and her protection of the
Amazon Camilla in book 11 of Vergil’s Aeneid), yet she brutally
punished those women who did not fit her concept of womanhood (as seen as her
punishment of rape victims Callisto and Aura). In his Hymn to Artemis,
the Greek author Callimachus praised her chastity (1-25), then proceeded to
list all of her female lovers (183-219). Her chaste love for her asexual
companion Hippolytus can be seen in his rescue and transformation into
the god Virbius (“twice-man”).
The story of
Artemis/Diana can help students better understand the complexity of gender and
sexuality in the ancient Greco-Roman world, as well as the treatment of women
and the danger of rape, predation and assault.
Sources: Apollodorus, Library I.iv;
Callimachus, Hymn to Artemis; Nonnus, Dionysiaca XLVIII; Ovid, Fasti
II.153ff; VI.732ff, etc.
YA Novel Recommendations:
* Bailey, Nicole. Apollo Ascending 2: A Crown of Hopes and Sorrows. ** May contain unsuitable material for younger readers**
* Cleveland, T. S. Ganymede and Other Romantic Short Stories from Greek Mythology
* Coombe, Clare. Camilla.
* Eileen, Shelby. Goddess of the Hunt.
* O'Connor, George. Artemis: The Wild Goddess of the Hunt.
* Lawrence, Caroline. Queen of the Silver Arrow
* Leavitt, Amie Jane. Diana: Roman Goddess of the Hunt.
Astraea / Virgo:
The virgin goddess of justice, Astraea lived on earth among mortals until
she became overwhelmed by their disrespect. She fled to the stars, becoming the
constellation Virgo.
The story of
Astraea / Virgo can help students better understand the complexity of sexuality
in the ancient Greco-Roman world, as she provides a role model for an asexual
woman not defined by her marriage / relationship with others.
Sources: Hyginus, De Astronomica II.25;
Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.149ff
YA Novel Recommendations:
Atalanta:
According to Greek mythology,
Atalanta was a mortal companion of Artemis / Diana, whom according to
Callimachus, the goddess “loved especially.”
She was famous for her participation in the Calydonian boar hunt, as
well as her participation as an Argonaut in Jason’s quest for the golden
fleece. Atalanta was one of the fastest runners of her generation, and
maintained her virginity by challenging her suitors to a foot race. She was
able to remain protected in this manner until she was beaten through treachery
by Hippomenes. She and Hippomenes were later transformed into lions due to her
breaking her chastity and his refusal to thank Aphrodite for her help in
winning the race.
The story of
Atalanta can help students better understand the complexity of women’s roles in
the ancient Greco-Roman world, as well as gender and sexuality.
Sources: Apollodorus, Library III.9;
Hyginus, Fabula 173-4, 185
YA Novel Recommendations:
* McMullan, Kate. Go For the Gold, Atalanta! **May contain unsuitable material**
* O'Connor, George. Artemis: The Wild Goddess of the Hunt.
* Swinburne, Algernon Charles. Atalanta in Calydon. (poem)
* Tammi, Elizabeth. Outrun the Wind
Athena / Minerva:
Athena / Minerva was the virgin goddess of skill, craft, and warfare. Athena was not born, but
rather leapt fully-grown from the head of Zeus / Jupiter after the god had
devoured the goddess of wisdom, Metis. Like Artemis / Diana, she was a
perfect example of the conflicting treatment of women’s sexuality in the
ancient Greco-Roman world, as she was vehemently portrayed as asexual, but also
the loving partner of the African water nymph Pallas. When she
accidentally killed Pallas in a sparring match, Athena was so overcome with
grief that she adopted her name, calling herself Pallas Athena. Moreover, she challenged gender roles by being portrayed with symbols of masculinity (warfare / armor) and femininity (weaving).
The story of Athena/ Minerva can help students
better understand the complexity of women’s roles in the ancient Greco-Roman
world, as well as gender and sexuality.
Sources: Apollodorus, Library I.iii.6,
III.xii; Greek Anthology vi.10; Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods 19
YA Novel Recommendations:
Bacchus / Dionysus:
The god of wine and release, Bacchus / Dionysus
was seen as one who pushes gender and sexuality norms. Like Athena / Minerva,
Dionysus’ birth was not a traditional one: after accidentally killing the
pregnant Semele, Zeus sewed her fetus into his thigh, nourishing it until the
child was ready to be born. Dionysus was seen as a successful warrior who
conquered India, as well as a vindictive avenger of those who denied him (as
seen in his treatment of Pentheus and Agave). His retinue consisted of nymphs,
satyrs and Maenads (women in a state of drunken fury). Although there were
numerous rape myths involving Dionysus, he was known for two stable monogamous
relationships: his husband Ampelos (a satyr who dies tragically, and
later transformed into a vine), and the Cretan princess Ariadne.
The study of
Bacchus / Dionysus can help students better understand the concept of dangerous
beauty, predation and assault, the treatment of women in the ancient world, as
well as gender norms and sexuality.
Sources: Hyginus, Fabulae 179; Lucian, Dialogues
of the Gods 18 – 19; Nonnus, Dionysiaca
YA Novel Recommendations:
* O'Connor, George. The Olympians: Dionysus, the New God.
Bassa:
According to the Roman poet Martial, Bassa was a woman who
pretended to be chaste by remaining in the company of other women, but was
actually dating those women.
The study of Bassa
can help students better understand the treatment of women, gender and
sexuality in the ancient Roman world.
Source: Martial, Epigrams I.90
YA Novel Recommendations:
Bitto:
According to the Greek poet Asclepiades, Bitto and Nannion were
two women in love who didn’t “follow the rules of Venus” (i.e., in a same-sex
relationship with each other, and not with men).
The study of
Bitto and Nannion can help students better understand the treatment of women in
the ancient Greco-Roman world, as well as gender and sexuality.
Source: Asclepiades, Greek Anthology
v.207
YA Novel Recommendations:
Britomartis / Dictynna:
According to Greek mythology, Britomartis was a
virgin demigoddess whose challenges to maintain her chastity from numerous
attackers was a testament to the danger of women in the ancient Greco-Roman
world. She traveled the world to avoid numerous suitors and rapists, was even
captured in a net like an animal [“Dictynna” means “the netted one”]. Finally
able to escape, she disappeared from the eyes of men. According to Callimachus,
Artemis / Diana also “passionately loved” her.
The study of
Britomartis can help students better understand the treatment of women in the
ancient Greco-Roman world, as well as the concept of dangerous beauty,
predation and rape.
Sources: Antoninus Liberalis, Metamorphoses
XL; Callimachus, Hymn to Artemis 188ff.
YA Novel Recommendations:
* Pavese, Cesare. Dialogues with Leuco
Caeneus:
According to Greek mythology, Caeneus was born Caenis, but when raped by
the god Poseidon / Neptune, Caenis asked to be transformed into a man [in some versions of this myth, their relationship is consensual]. Changing
his name to Caeneus, this legendary hero becomes known for his impenetrable
skin and his feats include becoming an Argonaut and fighting against the
centaurs.
The story of
Caeneus can help students better understand the complexity of gender in the
ancient world, as well as the dangers of predation and assault.
Sources: Apollonius, Argonautica 1.57ff; Hyginus, Fabulae XIV; Ovid, Metamorphoses XII.170ff.; Phlegon of Tralles, de Mirabilibus V; Vatican Mythographers II.130
YA Novel Recommendations:
* Deane, Maya. Wrath Goddess Sing.
* Edwards, Samuel Achilles. Caeneus.
* Portman, Bridgette Dutta. Caeneus and Poseidon
* MacLaughlin, Nina. Wake, Siren: Ovid Resung. **May contain unsuitable material**
Calamos:
According to Greek mythology, Calamos was a beautiful youth, the son of
the Menander River. He and his lover Carpos had a swimming contest, but
when Carpos drowned, he drowned himself to remain in death with his lover.
Calamos was then transformed into a reed plant.
The story of
Calamos and Carpos can help students better understand the concept of dangerous
beauty, as well as the complexity of sexuality in the ancient Greco-Roman
world.
Source: Nonnos, Dionysiaca XI
YA Novel Recommendations:
Callisto:
According to Greek mythology, Callisto was a nymph
who pledged her virginity to Artemis / Diana. When she was raped by Zeus/ Jupiter, Callisto tried to hide her pregnancy, but in vain. When Artemis
found out about Callisto’s pregnancy, she transformed Callisto into a bear; she
and her son Arcas were later transformed into the constellation Ursa Major
& Ursa Minor.
The story of Callisto can help students better understand the treatment of
women, the dangers of beauty, predation, and rape in the ancient Greco-Roman
world, as well as the complexity of gender and sexuality.
Source: Ovid, Fasti II.153ff.; Vatican Mythographers II.76
YA Novel Recommendations:
* Cleveland, T. S. Ganymede and Other Romantic Short Stories from Greek Mythology
Camilla:
According to Greek mythology, Camilla was a virgin devotee of Artemis/ Diana. Her father, the exiled king Metabus, pledged her life in exchange
for the infant’s safety; Camilla then grew to become a warrior under Artemis’
care. In Vergil’s Aeneid, she was seen as a warrior equal to her
male peers, and when she was finally killed by Arruns, Artemis sent Opis to
slay him in revenge. Her relationship with Acca was tender and loving.
The story of
Camilla can help students better understand the role of women in the ancient
world, as well as the complexities of gender and sexuality.
Sources: Excidium Troiae; Vergil, Aeneid
XI.
YA Novel Recommendations:
* Lawrence, Caroline. Queen of the Silver Arrow
* Coombe, Clare. Camilla.
Caracalla:
Caracalla was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 198 to 217 CE. The last of the Severan
dynasty, Caracalla was best known for his Constitutio Antoniniana, a
decree that provided Roman citizenship to all free men within the Roman Empire.
In homage to the great love of Achilles and Patroclus, he slew
his freedman Festus while visiting Troy in order to mourn his loss the way
Achilles mourned Patroclus.
The story of
Caracalla can help students better understand the complexity of wartime
violence, culture clashes, the appropriation of history and propaganda, as well
as gender and sexuality.
Sources: Herodian, History IV.8; SHA Vita
Caracalli
YA Novel Recommendations:
Carpos:
According to Greek mythology, Carpos was the lover of Calamos, the
beautiful son of the Menander river. He and his lover Calamos had a swimming
contest, but when Carpos drowned, Calamos drowned himself to remain in death
with his lover. Calamos was then transformed into a reed plant.
The story of
Calamos and Carpos can help students better understand the concept of dangerous
beauty, as well as the complexity of sexuality in the ancient Greco-Roman
world.
Source: Nonnos, Dionysiaca XI
YA Novel Recommendations:
Catullus:
Catullus was a Roman poet who lived during the 1st century BCE. He was
deeply inspired by the (now lost) works of Sappho, even naming the
object of his devotion “Lesbia” after the great Lesbian poet. Although Catullus
wrote lyric poetry on a variety of topics, a large portion of his poetry are
centered around his relationships with his lovers Lesbia and Iuventius.
Catullus’ poetry provides a great deal of insight into cultural perspectives
and events of the tumultuous waning years of the Roman Republic.
The study of
Catullus can help students better understand cultural perspectives of
Republican Rome, as well as the complexity of gender and sexuality of the
ancient Roman world.
Sources: Catullus 24, 48, 51, 81, 99
YA Novel Recommendations:
Chloris:
According to Greek mythology,
Chloris was the daughter of Orchomenus. In
Polygnotus’ mural of the Underworld at Delphi, she was depicted lying on the
knees of Thyia (daughter of Castalius). Pausanias described the scene
tenderly, stating that they had a φιλία
(philia, deep tenderness) throughout their lives.
The study of Chloris and Thyia can help students better understand the role
of women in the ancient world, as well as the complexities of gender and
sexuality.
Sources: Pausanias, Description of Greece X.xxix.5
YA Novel Recommendations:
Cletes:
According to Greek mythology, Cletes was an Amazon warrior and lover
of Queen Penthesilea. When following her lover to fight in the Trojan War,
her ship was thrown off course in a storm. She landed in Italy and founded a
city named after herself.
The study of Cletes can help students understand the impact
of Amazons and same-sex couples in Greco-Roman literature.
Sources: Lycophron, Alexandra / Cassandra
992ff
YA Novel Recommendations:
* Lynn, Hannah. Queens of Themiscyra
Cygnus:
According to Greek mythology,
Cygnus (“swan”) was the lover of Phaethon. When Phaethon died, Cygnus mourned
the death of his lover so much that he was transformed into a swan, and
ultimately became the constellation that bears his name. In Vergil’s Aeneid,
his son Cupavo wears swan feathers in the crest of his helmet in honor of his
father’s transformation.
The study of
Cygnus can help students better understand the role of sexuality in the ancient
Greco-Roman world.
Sources: Vergil, Aeneid x.185ff
YA Novel Recommendations:
Cyparissus:
According to
Greek mythology, Cyparissus (“cypress”) was the lover of the forest god Sylvanus.
When Sylvanus accidentally slew Cyparissus’ pet deer, Cyparissus died of grief.
Sylvanus then transformed Cyparissus into a cypress tree.
The study of Cyparissus
can help
students better understand the complexity of sexuality in the ancient
Greco-Roman world.
Sources: Ovid, Metamorphoses X.106ff; Vatican Mythographers I.6
YA Novel Recommendations:
Cleomachus:
Cleomachus was an Olympic champion
in boxing who, according to sources, “had a surgery” then “exchanged his boxing
gloves for bangles, and his victor’s robe for a gown.” After this
transformation, Cleomachus became a famous poet and lived with a gender-fluid
man, and together they raised a daughter.
The study of Cleomachus can help students understand the complexity of gender in the ancient
Greco-Roman world.
Sources: -Strabo, Geographica XIV.1.40; Tertullian
de Pallio IV.4; Tricha, De Metris p. 34
YA Novel Recommendations:
Damon:
According to Greek lore, Damon and Pythias plotted to kill the
tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse. When Pythias was caught and sentenced to be
executed, Damon remained imprisoned as a hostage so that Pythias could wrap up
his affairs. Pythias promised to return in three days, at which time Dionysius
would execute Damon. Pythias was late, but Damon had perfect confidence in
Pythias’ return. When Pythias returned, Dionysius was so impressed by their
level of complete trust and commitment to each other that he freed them both.
The study of
Pythias and Damon can help students better understand the nature of loyalty, trust and
sexuality in the ancient Greco-Roman world.
YA Novel Recommendations:
* Bateman, Teresa. Damon, Pythias, and the Test of Friendship.
* Hill, Laban M., and Bates, James Edward. The Story of Damon & Pythias.
Daphne:
According to Greek mythology, Daphne (“bay / laurel”) was the daughter of
the river Peneus and was pursued romantically by Apollo. In one version
of the myth, Daphne was asexual and rejected Apollo, only to be chased down and
ultimately transformed into a bay tree in order to be kept safe from rape. In
another myth, Daphne was in love with Leucippos, a young man who dressed
as a girl and lived with the other hunters of Artemis / Diana. Daphne
fell in love with Leucippos, but when her naked body was revealed while
bathing, the other hunters of Artemis attacked her and killed her.
The study of
Daphne can help
students better understand the complexity of gender and sexuality in the
ancient Greco-Roman world.
Sources: Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.453ff;
Parthenius of Nicea, Erotica XV
YA Novel Recommendations:
* O'Connor, George. Olympians: Apollo, The Brilliant One.
Diana: see Artemis
Dionysus: see Bacchus
Elegabalus / Bassiana/ Heliogabalus:
Elegabalus was a Roman emperor who reigned from 218 –
222 CE. They worshipped the Syrian cult of the sun god Elegabal, and was infamous
for breaking numerous social norms. They took lovers of all genders, and
changed their name to the feminine form (Bassiana). Their complete rejection of
gender and social norms led to their infamy by later authors.
The study of
Elegabalus can help students better understand the complexity of gender, sexual, and
social norms in the ancient Roman world.
Sources: Epitome de Caesaribus XXIII; SHA Vita Elegabali
YA Novel Recommendations:
Euryalus:
According to Roman mythology, the lovers Nisus and Euryalus were
Trojan refugees and companions of Aeneas. In book 9 of the Aeneid, Nisus and
Euryalus make a daring reconnaissance mission, where they are ultimately
killed. Vergil praises their love and their death, calling them
“blessed” for dying together for each other and for their country.
The story of
Nisus and Euryalus can help students better understand the role of duty, courage, as well as
the complexity of sexuality in the ancient Roman world.
Source: Vergil, Aeneid V, IX
YA Novel Recommendations:
* Lawrence, Caroline. The Night Raid
Favorinus:
Favorinus of Arelate was a famous intersex
philosopher and sophist during the 2nd century CE. He was known to
have gotten into a famous feud with the Roman Emperor Hadrian, but
without punishment; the fact that Favorinus was not put to death for this
disagreement was seen as a sign of the emperor’s mercy.
The story of
Favorinus can help students better understand the impact of intersex people in
the ancient Greco-Roman world.
Sources:
Philostratus, Vita Sophistarum I.viii
YA Novel Recommendations:
Fonteia Eleusis:
Fonteia Eleusis was a freedwoman who lived during the age of Augustus who was buried with her partner, Fonteia Helena. Their tombstone depicts them clasping hands, symbolism usually reserved for married couples.
The study of Fonteia Eleusis and Fonteia Helena helps students
understand the complex nature of marriage and sexuality in the ancient Roman world.
Source: CIL VI.18524
YA Novel Recommendations:
Fonteia Helena:
Fonteia Helena was a freedwoman who lived during
the age of Augustus who was buried with her partner, Fonteia Eleusis. Their tombstone
depicts them clasping hands, symbolism usually reserved for married couples.
The study of Fonteia Eleusis and Fonteia Helena helps students
understand the complex nature of marriage and sexuality in the ancient Roman world.
Source: CIL VI.18524
YA Novel Recommendations:
Fronto / Marcus Cornelius Fronto:
Known as
the “Second Cicero,” Fronto was a famous Roman orator and scholar of the 2nd
century CE. Although his other works are lost, his correspondence with his
protégé Marcus Aurelius provides insight into the Imperial Roman world. The
nature of the relationship between Marcus Aurelius and Fronto is deeply
debated; some scholars believe their relationship was amatory, while others
insist that their feelings for each other was a deep and loving friendship.
The letters of
Fronto can help students better understand the complexity of masculinity,
friendship, and sexuality in the ancient Roman world.
Sources: Fronto, Letters
YA Novel Recommendations:
Galinthias:
According to Greek mythology, Galinthias assisted Alcmene in her birth of
Hercules. Out of love for her dear companion, she tricked Hera / Juno
and Eileithyia into thinking that Alcmena had already given birth. Hera then
punished her by transforming her into a polecat / weasel.
The story of
Galinthias can help students better understand the role of women in the ancient
world, as well as the complexity of gender and sexuality.
Sources: Antoninus Liberalis Metamorphoses
XXIX
YA Novel Recommendations:
Ganymede:
According to Greek mythology, Zeus / Jupiter transformed into an eagle
and abducted the beautiful Trojan prince Ganymede. He made the youth immortal
and assigned him the role of cupbearer of the gods. His name became synonymous
with a vulnerable, beautiful young man (often used for sex).
The story of Ganymede can help students better
understand the dangers of beauty, predation, and rape.
Sources: Hyginus, Fabulae 271; Vatican
Mythographers I.181
YA Novel Recommendations:
* Cleveland, T. S. Ganymede and Other Romantic Short Stories from Greek Mythology
Hadrian:
Hadrian was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 117 to 138 CE. His reign was a peaceful one;
with little foreign conflicts, Hadrian spent his reign traveling throughout the
Mediterranean and making infrastructure repairs. His lover Antinous died
tragically and mysteriously while the couple traveled throughout Egypt in 130
CE. Utterly destroyed by the death of his lover, Hadrian erected the city
Antinoopolis at the site of his death and had the young man deified. Although
their relationship was romanticized in the ancient world, modern readers may
see their disparity in social classes negating the consent of the relationship.
The story of
Hadrian and Antinous can help students better understand the concept of
dangerous beauty, social class and consent, as well as gender and sexuality in
the ancient Roman world.
Sources: Cassius Dio, Epitome lxix.11; Epitome
de Caesaribus xiv; SHA Vita Hadriani xiv
YA Novel Recommendations:
* Goodloe, Abbe Carter. Antinous: A Tragedy (1891).
* Yourcenar, Marguerite. Memoirs of Hadrian
Harmodius:
Along with his
lovers Aristogeiton and Leaena, Harmodius plotted to assassinate
the Athenian tyrant Hippias in 514 BCE. This act was seen in later years as a
defense of liberty and democracy, and the love between Harmodius and
Aristogeiton was praised as the pinnacle of love and devotion.
The story of
Harmodius and Aristogeiton can help students better understand the concept of
love, duty, ethics, gender and sexuality in the ancient world.
Sources:
Hyginus, Fabulae 257; Maximus of Tyre, Dissertation VIII;
Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War. VI.51ff; Valerius Maximus,
Memorable Deeds and Sayings, II.x.ext.1
YA Novel Recommendations:
Hephaestion:
Hephaestion was the lover of the Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great, a
larger-than-life historic figure of the 4th century BCE who
conquered and built an empire extending from Greece, Egypt and parts of Asia.
Together Alexander and Hephaestion declared their love for each other by
sacrificing at the tomb of Achilles and Patroclus.
The story of
Alexander and Hephaestion can help students better understand the complexity of
wartime violence, culture clashes and xenophobia, the appropriation of history
and propaganda, as well as gender and sexuality.
Sources: Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander
I.xii; Quintus Curtius Rufus, Alexander III.xii.15ff.
YA Novel Recommendations:
Hercules / Heracles:
Hercules was a larger-than-life mythic hero known for his
series of twelve labors that he completed as penance for the murder of his wife and
children. Hercules surpasses the limits of strength, courage, and gender roles.
When forced to serve Queen Omphale for a year, Hercules dressed as a woman.
When he joins Jason and the other Argonauts in the quest for the golden fleece,
he brings his lover Hylas with him. When Hylas was abducted by water
nymphs, Hercules abandoned the Argonauts out of grief. He then went on to sack
Troy and abduct King Priam’s sister Hesione as his concubine.
The story of
Hercules can help students better understand the complexity of epic heroes,
wartime violence, dangerous beauty, predation and rape, as well as gender and
sexuality in the ancient Greco-Roman world.
Sources: Hyginus, Fabulae XIV, XXX
YA Novel Recommendations:
Hippolytus:
According to Greek mythology, Hippolytus was the asexual son of Theseus
and the Amazon Hippolyte. Hippolytus was devoted to Artemis / Diana,
who shared a chaste love with him. Because he failed to worship Aphrodite /
Venus, the goddess cursed his stepmother Phaedra, causing her to fall madly in
love with him. Phaedra propositioned Hippolytus and he refused her; she then
killed herself, alleging that Hippolytus raped her. Believing his wife over his
own son, Theseus cursed Hippolytus to death. However, Artemis saved Hippolytus’
dying body and relocated him in Italy, renaming him “Virbius” (“twice-man”). In
some accounts, Hippolytus and the nymph Arricia had a son, also named Virbius.
Hippolytus was so famous for his chastity that his
name becomes a term used by lyric poets to refer to an asexual man.
The story of Hippolytus can help students better
understand the complexity of sexual violence, gender and sexuality in the
ancient Greco-Roman world.
Sources: Euripides’ Hippolytus;
Vergil, Aeneid VII.761ff; Vatican Mythographers II.151
YA Novel Recommendations:
* Euripides. Hippolytus
* HD. Hippolytus Temporizes and Ion.
* Lynn, Hannah. Queens of Themiscyra
* Pavese, Cesare. Dialogues with Leuco
* Renault, Mary. The Bull From the Sea
Hyacinthos / Hyacinthus:
According to Greek mythology, Hyacinthos was a
beautiful youth loved by both the god Apollo and the god Boreas. While
Hyacinthos was practicing the discus, Boreas grew jealous and directed a gust
of wind to force the discus back at Hyacinthus, killing him. Out of grief,
Apollo transformed the youth into a flower (hyacinth). Although Apollo has numerous amatory partners
(usually unsuccessfully), Hyacinthos and Daphne are seen as his two true
loves.
The story of
Hyacinthos can help students better understand the dangers of beauty, sexual
violence, predation and assault.
Sources: Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods 14,
17; Hyginus, Fabulae 271; Vatican Mythographers I.115
YA Novel Recommendations:
* Bailey, Nicole. Apollo Ascending: Veil of Gods and Kings **May contain unsuitable material for younger readers**
* Bailey, Nicole. Apollo Ascending 2: A Crown of Hopes and Sorrows. **May contain unsuitable material for younger readers**
* Bailey, Nicole. Apollo Ascending 3: A Shield of Fate and Ruin. **May contain unsuitable material for younger readers**
* Bailey, Nicole. Apollo Ascending 4: A Spark of Death and Fury. **May contain unsuitable material for younger readers**
* O'Connor, George. Olympians: Apollo, The Brilliant One.
* Pavese, Cesare. Dialogues with Leuco
Hyginus / Gaius Julius Hyginus:
A Roman writer who lived during the end of the 1st
century BCE and the beginning of the 1st century CE, Hyginus was
most famous for his short epitomes of Greek and Roman myths. Despite being a
freedman employed by the Emperor Augustus to serve at the Imperial Library at
Rome, he was "so poor that he enjoyed the support of Clodius Licinius for as long as he lived". He was
very close with the poet Ovid, and numerous overlaps are seen in the
works of both authors.
The works of
Hyginus can help students better understand Greek and Roman myths in simple,
straightforward Latin prose.
Sources: Suetonius, De Grammaticis XX
YA Novel Recommendations:
Hylas:
According to Greek mythology,
Hylas was an Argonaut and a lover of Hercules. While the Argo stopped for
supplies, Hylas searched for water and was abducted by water nymphs. Distraught
by his lost lover, Hercules abandoned the Argonauts and vowed to continue the
search for him.
The story of
Hylas can help students better understand the concept of dangerous beauty,
predation and rape, as well as gender and sexuality in the ancient Greco-Roman
world.
Sources: Antoninus Liberalis, Metamorphoses
26; Propertius, Elegies I.20 Vatican Mythographers I.49
YA Novel Recommendations:
Hypatia:
The story of Hypatia
can help students better understand the role of women and asexuality in the
ancient Roman world.
Sources: Suda Y.166
YA Novel Recommendations:
* Dzielska, Maria. Hypatia of Alexandria
* Skelley, Billie Holladay. Hypatia: Ancient Alexandria's Female Scholar.
* Toland, John. Hypatia, or The History of a Most Beautiful Most Vertuous, Most Learned, and Every Way Accomplish'd Lady; Who Was Torn to Pieces by the Clergy of Alexandria, to Gratify the Pride, Emulation and Cruelty of their Archbishop, Commonly but Undeservedly Styled St. Cyril.
Iamblichus:
Iamblichus was a Greek novelist who lived in Roman Syria during the 2nd century CE. His novel, the Babyloniaca, only exists in epitome form, but from the summary preserved by the Christian author Photius, the secondary romance plot involves the women Berenice and Mesopotamia.
The study of Iamblichus helps students understand the prevalence
of same-sex couples in the ancient Greco-Roman world.
Sources: Photius, Bibliotheka, I.94
YA Novel Recommendations:
Ianthe:
According to Greek mythology, Ianthe was the lover of Iphis.
Because Ligdus did not want his pregnant wife Telethusa to bear a daughter,
when she delivered a girl, she named the child Iphis, a gender neutral name.
Iphis was raised as a boy, and when the time came for Iphis to marry the girl
Ianthe, Telethusa and Iphis prayed for help. The goddess Isis blessed Iphis
with a male body, and Iphis and Ianthe lived happily ever after.
The story of
Iphis and Ianthe can help students better understand the complexities of gender
and sexuality in the ancient Greco-Roman world.
Sources: Ovid, Metamorphosis X.665ff
YA Novel Recommendations:
* Jenkins, K. Iphis and Ianthe.
* Lyly, John. Galatea
* Smith, Ali. Girl Meets Boy
* MacLaughlin, Nina. Wake, Siren: Ovid Resung. **May contain unsuitable material**
Iphis:
According to Greek mythology, Iphis was the lover of Ianthe.
Because Ligdus did not want his pregnant wife Telethusa to bear a daughter,
when she delivered a girl, she named the child Iphis, a gender neutral name.
Iphis was raised as a boy, and when the time came for Iphis to marry the girl
Ianthe, Telethusa and Iphis prayed for help. The goddess Isis blessed Iphis
with a male body, and Iphis and Ianthe lived happily ever after.
The story of
Iphis and Ianthe can help students better understand the complexities of gender
and sexuality in the ancient Greco-Roman world.
Sources: Ovid, Metamorphosis X.665ff
YA Novel Recommendations:
* Jenkins, K. Iphis and Ianthe.
* Lyly, John. Galatea
* Smith, Ali. Girl Meets Boy
* * MacLaughlin, Nina. Wake, Siren: Ovid Resung. **May contain unsuitable material**
Jupiter / Zeus:
As king of the Greco-Roman pantheon, Zeus / Jupiter is the perfect example of absolute power corrupting absolutely. His numerous tales of infidelity against his wife Hera/Juno shows his absolute disregard for consent or respect of the bodily autonomy of others.
The stories of
Jupiter / Zeus can help students better understand the importance of consent,
dangerous beauty, predation and rape, as well as the complexity of gender and
sexuality in the ancient Greco-Roman world.
Sources: Hyginus’ Fabulae; Ovid’s Metamorphoses; Vatican Mythographers
YA Novel Recommendations:
* Cleveland, T. S. Ganymede and Other Romantic Short Stories from Greek Mythology
Iuventius:
Catullus, a Roman poet who
lived during the 1st century BCE, used the pseudonym Iuventius for
the male object of his affection.
The study of
Catullus’s relationship with Iuventius can help students better understand
cultural perspectives of Republican Rome, as well as the complexity of gender
and sexuality of the ancient Roman world.
Sources: Catullus 24, 48, 81, 99
YA Novel Recommendations:
Knossos, the Serpent of:
According to Greek mythology, a lover once gave a
baby snake to his Cretan boyfriend. The young man raised the snake and took
care of it until it grew up. The town’s inhabitants grew afraid of it and
forced him to return the snake to the wild, and although he was upset about it,
he complied. Later when the youth was out hunting and ran into some bandits, he
shouted for help. The snake recognized its old owner, and in a show of
affection, freed him from danger by curling itself around the bandits and
killing them.
The story of the
Serpent of Knossos can help students better understand the complexity of gender
and sexuality in the ancient Greco-Roman world.
Source: Conon, Narrations XXI
YA Novel Recommendations:
Leaena:
Leaena (“lioness”) was a courtesan and companion of the Athenian lovers Harmodius
and Aristogeiton. She helped them in their plot to kill the tyrant
Hippias. When the plot was foiled and she was captured, she bit off her own
tongue to keep them safe. Leaena’s courage was praised in Greco-Roman
literature and art; a statue of a lion was erected in her honor.
The story of
Leaena can help students better understand the role of women in the ancient
Greco-Roman world, as well as the complexity of gender and sexuality.
Sources: Hyginus, Fabulae 257; Pliny the Elder, Natural History XXXIV.19
YA Novel Recommendations:
Leucippos:
According to Greek mythology, Leucippos was trans woman who joined the other hunters of Artemis. The nymph Daphne fell
in love with her, but when Apollo outed her, the other hunters of Artemis attacked her and killed her. In another version of the myth, Leucippos was
born a daughter but with help of the goddess Latona, was transformed into a man
[note: this version appears to be a conflation of the myth of Leucippos and Iphis].
The study of
Leucippos can help
students better understand the complexity of gender and sexuality in the
ancient Greco-Roman world, as well as bias and violence.
Sources: Antoninus Liberalis, Metamorphoses
17; Parthenius of Nicea, Erotica XV
YA Novel Recommendations:
Luxorius:
Luxorius was a Roman poet who lived in Carthage in the 6th century CE. Much
like his predecessors Catullus and Martial, Luxorius’ poetry provides a great
deal of insight into cultural perspectives and events of his times,
particularly the impact of Christianity on Roman mores. Although his poetic
persona often mocks and inveighs against the same-sex couples in his social
circle, it is important to note that there were no legal or social consequences
for these behaviors that he deemed “anti-Christian.”
The study of
Luxorius can help students better understand the impact of Christianity on
Roman mores, as well as bias, gender and sexuality in the Greco-Roman world.
Source: Luxorius
YA Novel Recommendations:
Maecenas:
Maecenas was an influential member of the Roman Emperor Augustus’ retinue who refused
to adhere to Roman gender and social norms (70 BCE – 8 CE). He was described as
“dripping with femininity,” yet was never expected by Augustus to conform to
the stringent social reforms that the emperor was undertaking at the time.
The study of
Maecenas can help students better understand the complexity of masculinity in
the ancient Greco-Roman world, as well as gender roles and sexuality.
Sources: Velleius Paterculus, Roman History II.88
YA Novel Recommendations:
Marathus:
Tibullus, a
Roman poet who lived during the late 1st century BCE, used the
pseudonym Marathus for the male object of his affection.
The study of
Tibullus’ relationship with Marathus can help students better understand
cultural perspectives of this time period, as well as the complexity of gender
and sexuality of the ancient Roman world.
Sources: Tibullus, Carmina I.4, I.8, I.9
YA Novel Recommendations:
Marcus Aurelius / Marcus Antoninus Aurelius:
Marcus Aurelius was a Roman emperor
who ruled from 161 to 180 CE, best known as one of the “five good emperors,” as
well as for his philosophical work, The Meditations. His correspondence with
his mentor Marcus Cornelius Fronto provides insight into the Imperial Roman
world. The nature of the relationship between Marcus Aurelius and Fronto
is deeply debated; some scholars believe their relationship was amatory, while
others insist that their feelings for each other was a deep and loving
friendship.
The letters of
Fronto can help students better understand the complexity of masculinity,
friendship, and sexuality in the ancient Roman world.
Sources: Marcus Aurelius, Meditations;
Fronto, Letters
YA Novel Recommendations:
YA Novel Recommendations:
Mars: see Ares
Martial:
Martial was a Roman poet who lived during the 1st century CE. Martial’s
poetry provides a great deal of insight into cultural perspectives and events
of the tumultuous years of the Roman Empire, including the despotic reign of
the emperor Domitian.
The poetry of
Martial can help students better understand cultural perspectives of Imperial
Rome, as well as the complexity of gender and sexuality of the ancient Roman
world.
Sources: Martial’s Epigrams
YA Novel Recommendations:
Megillus:
Megillus was a fictional character in the
satires of Lucian, a Greek author who lived during the 2nd century CE.
According to the story, Megillus was a transgender man who lived with his wife
Demonassa.
The story of
Megillus can help students better understand the complexity of gender and
sexuality in the ancient Greco-Roman world.
Source: Lucian, Dialogue of the Courtesans
V
YA Novel Recommendations:
Minerva: see Athena
Muses:
According to Greek mythology, the Muses (the nine goddesses of the arts
and inspiration) are “beyond the influence of Eros/Cupid.”
The story of the
Muses can help students better understand the role of women and the impact of
asexual divinities in the ancient Greco-Roman world.
Sources: Greek Anthology IX.39; Lucian, Dialogues
of the Gods XIX
YA Novel Recommendations:
Myrmex:
According to Greek mythology, Myrmex (“ant”) was cherished by the goddess
Athena / Minerva. This love turned to hatred when Myrmex stole Athena’s
invention, the plough; Athena punished her by transforming her into an ant.
The story of
Myrmex can help students better understand the treatment of women in the
ancient world, as well as the complexity of gender and sexuality in the ancient
Greco-Roman world.
Source: Servius, In Aeneid IV.402
YA Novel Recommendations:
Nannion:
According to the Greek poet Asclepiades, Bitto and Nannion were
two women in love who didn’t “follow the rules of Venus” (i.e., in a same-sex
relationship with each other, and not with men).
The study of
Bitto and Nannion can help students better understand the treatment of women in
the ancient Greco-Roman world, as well as gender and sexuality.
Source: Asclepiades, Greek Anthology
v.207
YA Novel Recommendations:
Narcissus:
According to mythology, Narcissus
was a beautiful youth who was punished for rejecting the advances of his many
suitors. He was cursed to fall in love with himself; when he saw his reflection
in water, he pined away and died. He was later transformed into a narcissus
flower.
The study of Narcissus can help students better understand the dangers of beauty
and predation in the
Greco-Roman world.
Sources: Conon, Narrationes XXIV; Ovid, Metamorphoses
III
YA Novel Recommendations:
Nemesianus:
Nemesianus was a Roman poet who lived in Carthage
in the 3rd century CE. Much like his predecessors Catullus and
Martial, Nemesianus’ poetry provides a great deal of insight into cultural
perspectives and events of his times, particularly the impact of Christianity
on Roman mores. Unlike the later Carthaginian Luxorius, Nemesianus’ portrayal
of same-sex couples was generally either neutral or positive; his fourth
Eclogue often repeated the line, Cantet, amat quod quisque: levant et
carmina curas (“let each one sing of whomever they love, for songs can
alleviate our troubles.”)
The study of
Nemesianus can help students better understand the impact of Christianity on
Roman mores, as well as bias, gender and sexuality in the Greco-Roman world.
Source: Nemesianus, Eclogue IV
YA Novel Recommendations:
Nisus:
According to Roman mythology, the lovers Nisus and Euryalus were Trojan
refugees and companions of Aeneas. In book 9 of the Aeneid, Nisus and
Euryalus make a daring reconnaissance mission, where they are ultimately
killed. Vergil praises their love and their death, calling them
“blessed” for dying together for each other and for their country.
The story of
Nisus and Euryalus can help students better understand the role of duty, courage, masculinity,
as well as the complexity of sexuality in the ancient Roman world.
Source: Vergil, Aeneid V, IX
YA Novel Recommendations:
* Lawrence, Caroline. The Night Raid
Orestes:
According to Greek mythology, Orestes was the son of Clytemnestra and the
Trojan War veteran Agamemnon. When his mother Clytemnestra murdered his father
in retribution for his murder of Iphigenia, Orestes was forced to murder her in
turn. This action caused the Furies to drive Orestes to madness, forcing him to
seek treatment. The fact that his lover Pylades supported him through
his ordeals made numerous Greek and Latin authors praise the love between
Orestes and Pylades as the pinnacle of love and devotion.
The study of
Orestes and Pylades can help students better understand the concept of love,
duty, ethics, gender and sexuality in the ancient world.
Sources: Cicero, de Finibus II.xxiv.79;
V.xxii.63; Hyginus, Fabulae 257
YA Novel Recommendations:
Ovid:
Ovid was a Roman poet who lived during the
1st century BCE. His works include amatory poetry (the Art of
Love and the Amores) as well as epics (Metamorphoses). His
works provide a great deal of insight into cultural perspectives and events of
the tumultuous years of the rise of Augustan Rome.
The study of Ovid
can help students better understand cultural perspectives of Republican Rome,
as well as the complexity of gender and sexuality of the ancient Roman world.
Sources: Ovid, Amores, Ars Amatoria, Ex Ponto
Fasti, Metamorphoses, Tristia
YA Novel Recommendations:
Pallas:
According to Greek mythology,
Pallas was an African water nymph and daughter of Tritonis. Athena / Minerva
and Pallas grew up together in Libya. When Athena accidentally killed Pallas in
a sparring match, she was so overcome with grief that she adopted her name,
calling herself Pallas Athena.
The study of
Pallas can help students better understand the role of women in the ancient
Greco-Roman world, as well as the complexities of gender and sexuality.
Sources: Apollodorus, Bibl. III.xii.3;
YA Novel Recommendations:
Patroclus:
According to Greek mythology, Patroclus was a Trojan War soldier and
lover of Achilles. His relationship with Achilles was praised for
centuries as the pinnacle of lifelong love, with figures such as Alexander
the Great, the Emperor Hadrian, and Emperor Caracalla making
offering at their tomb with their respective partners.
The story of
Achilles and Patroclus can help students better understand complex topics like
masculinity, gender and sexuality.
Sources: Excidium Troiae; Homer, Iliad;
Maximus of Tyre, Dissertation VIII; Plato, Symposium 179-180;
Statius, Achilleid, etc.
YA Novel Recommendations:
* Balmer, Josephine. The Paths of Survival.
* Deane, Maya. Wrath Goddess Sing.
* Miller, Madeline. The Song of Achilles. **May contain unsuitable material**
* Parmar, Shivani. Achilles & Patroclus: A Moment of Peace in a Lifetime of War.
* Roberts, H. M. Prophecy of Achilles.
* Thompson, Ryan. Achilles: Making of a Hero.
* Yourcenar, Marguerite. Fires.
Penthesilea:
According to Greek mythology, Penthesilea was an Amazon queen who
fought in the Trojan War on behalf of the Trojans after the death of Hector.
Like many treatments of Amazons in Greco-Roman art and literature, she was
portrayed as either the lover of women (having the Amazon lover Cletes in literature and Thereichme in Greek art), a valorous
warrior whom Priam cherishes as if she were his son; or the object of Achilles’
desire, who falls in love with her as she dies.
The story of the
Penthesilea can help students better understand the complexity of gender, bias,
and misogyny in the ancient Greco-Roman world.
Sources: Beazley 200860 / Athenian Museum 15002; Excidium
Troiae 11; Quintus of Smyrna’s Posthomerica I;
YA Novel Recommendations:
* Binyon, Laurence. Penthesilea.
* Lynn, Hannah. Queens of Themiscyra
Philaenis:
According to Greek lore, Philaenis of Samos was an author of an erotic
manual. Over time, her name became used a stock character for an overly lusty
woman, particularly one with same-sex desire.
The story of
Philaenis can help students better understand the treatment of women in the
ancient world, as well as the complexities of gender and sexuality.
Sources: Greek Anthology VII.450; Martial,
Epigram VII.70
YA Novel Recommendations:
* Donne, John. Sappho to Philaenis (poem)
Phlegon of Tralles:
Phlegon of Tralles was an author of the 2nd century CE and a
freedman of the Roman emperor Hadrian. His work, On Marvels,
documented various unusual scientific facts and discoveries, including several
accounts of intersex and transgender people.
The study of
Phlegon of Tralles can help students better understand the complexity of sex
and gender in the Greco-Roman world.
Source: Phlegon of Tralles’ On Marvels
YA Novel Recommendations:
Pirithous:
According to Greek mythology, Pirithous was a king of the Lapiths and
lover of the Greek hero Theseus. When Pirithous descended to the Underworld to
abduct Persephone, Theseus showed his devotion by joining him on his
quest. This devotion was praised by numerous authors, and the two become a
stock example for love and loyalty.
The study of
Pirithous and Theseus can help students better understand the concept of the
treatment of women, rape and predation, love, duty, ethics, gender and
sexuality in the ancient world.
Sources: Hyginus, Fabulae 79; 257
YA Novel Recommendations:
Pompeian Graffiti:
Numerous inscriptions and graffiti were preserved by the destruction of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 CE. One of
the most famous inscriptions, CIL IV.5296, was a love poem written by a woman to another woman. The poem tells the addressee
that she wishes to kiss and embrace her tenderly and to not trust the fickle
nature of men. In other inscriptions, men proclaim their love for other men
(“Beautiful Sabinus, Hermeros
loves you!” CIL IV.1256), and women proclaim their love for other women (“Chloe greets Eutychiae, but you don't care about me;” CIL
IV.8321A), and women make pregnancy announcements (“Atimetus made me pregnant!” CIL IV.10231).
Pompeiian graffiti provides modern readers with a glimpse of
Romans whose lives are rarely discussed in the literature of the elite.
The study of Pompeiian
graffiti can help students better understand the
role and treatment of women, gender roles, and sexuality in the ancient Roman
world.
Sources: CIL I1256; IV.5296; IV.8321A;
YA Novel Recommendations:
Pylades:
According to Greek mythology, Pylades was the son of King Strophius and nephew of Agamemnon. When Orestes was driven into exile for the death of his mother Clytemnestra, Pylades showed his love and loyalty for him by following him and keeping him safe. Numerous Greek and Latin authors praise the love between
Orestes and Pylades as the pinnacle of love and devotion.
The study of
Orestes and Pylades can help students better understand the concept of love,
duty, ethics, gender and sexuality in the ancient world.
Sources: Cicero, de Finibus II.xxiv.79;
V.xxii.63; Hyginus, Fabulae 257
YA Novel Recommendations:
Pythias:
According to Greek lore, Damon and Pythias plotted to kill the tyrant
Dionysius of Syracuse. When Pythias was caught and sentenced to be executed,
Damon remained imprisoned as a hostage so that Pythias could wrap up his
affairs. Pythias promised to return in three days, at which time Dionysius
would execute Damon. Pythias was late, but Damon had perfect confidence in
Pythias’ return. When Pythias returned, Dionysius was so impressed by their
level of complete trust and commitment to each other that he freed them both.
The study of
Pythias and Damon can help students better understand the nature of loyalty, trust and
sexuality in the ancient Greco-Roman world.
Sources: Hyginus, Fabulae 257
YA Novel Recommendations:
* Bateman, Teresa. Damon, Pythias, and the Test of Friendship.
* Hill, Laban M., and Bates, James Edward. The Story of Damon & Pythias.
Sappho:
Known as the “Tenth Muse,” this Greek poet has an undeniable impact on
Greco-Roman literature, but unfortunately only fragments remain of her poetry.
Most of her life is shrouded in mystery, but what is known is that she lived
during the late 7th through early 6th century BCE on the
island of Lesbos. Her poetry is passionate and vivid, with topics depicting
life, love, and women’s experiences. Many of her fragments show a love for
other women; the modern term “lesbian” was coined in homage to her influence.
The study of
Sappho can help students better understand the impact of women on literature,
as well as the complexity of gender, bias, and sexuality in the ancient
Greco-Roman world.
Sources: Sappho, Poems; Suda, S107
YA Novel Recommendations:
* Bailey, Nicole. Apollo Ascending 2: A Crown of Hopes and Sorrows. **May contain unsuitable material for younger readers**
* Donne, John. Sappho to Philaenis (poem)
* Frye, Ellen. The Other Sappho
* HD. Collected Poems of H.D. (1925).
* HD. The Wise Sappho.
* Johnson, Marguerite. Ancients in Action: Sappho
* Leonard, Anya. Sappho: The Lost Poetess.
* Pavese, Cesare. Dialogues with Leuco
* Rayor, Diane J. Sappho's Lyre: Archaic Lyric and Women Poets of Ancient Greece **May contain unsuitable material*
* Roche, Paul (translator). The Love Songs of Sappho
* Swinburne, Algernon Charles. Anactoria. (poem)
* Yourcenar, Marguerite. Fires.
Sextilianus:
According to the 1st century CE poet Martial, Sextilianus was
the poet’s friend who liked “tantos et tantas” (“so many men and
women,”).
The study of
Sextilianus can help students better understand the complexity of sexuality in
the ancient Roman world.
Source: Martial, Epigrams VI.54
YA Novel Recommendations:
Silvanus / Sylvanus:
According
to Greek mythology, the forest god Sylvanus was the lover of Cyparissus
(“cypress”). When Sylvanus accidentally slew Cyparissus’ pet deer, Cyparissus
died of grief. Sylvanus then transformed Cyparissus into a cypress tree.
The study of
Cyparissus can help
students better understand the complexity of sexuality in the ancient Greco-Roman
world.
Sources: Ovid, Metamorphoses X.106ff; Vatican Mythographers I.6
YA Novel Recommendations:
Sinope:
According to Greek mythology, Sinope was an asexual nymph who tricked
both Apollo and Jupiter / Zeus into retaining her virginity.
The story of
Sinope can help students better understand the treatment of women in the
ancient world, the dangers of beauty, predation, and rape, as well as the
complexity of gender and sexuality in the ancient Greco-Roman world.
Sources: Apollonius Rhodes, Argonautica
II.948ff; Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica V.109ff
YA Novel Recommendations:
Sympheron:
According to Phlegon of Tralles,
Sympheron was given the name Sympherousa at birth, but then transformed into a
man and devoted the remainder of his life to gardening.
The story of
Sympheron can help students better understand the complexity of gender in the
ancient Greco-Roman world.
Source: Phlegon of Tralles, de Mirabilibus
VII
YA Novel Recommendations:
Theban Band:
In the 4th century BCE, an elite group of 300 Theban warriors
(150 pairs of same-sex lovers) were assembled, with the understanding that a
lover would more fiercely fight on the battlefield to defend their lover.
The story of the
Theban Band can help students better understand the complexity of masculinity,
gender roles, and sexuality.
Sources: Maximus of Tyre, Dissertation
VIII
YA Novel Recommendations:
Theseus:
According to Greek mythology, Theseus was both the son of Aegeus and Poseidon /
Neptune. He is best known for slaying the Minotaur. As a larger-than-life hero, his story was
complicated and messy. His amatory partners were often victimized; he raped the
famous Helen of Troy before her marriage to Menelaus; he abducted the Amazon
Hippolyte, with whom he has Hippolytus; he abandoned Ariadne, who later
became the wife of Dionysus / Bacchus; he then married Ariadne’s sister
Phaedra, who fell in love with her stepson Hippolytus and accused him of rape.
He also joined his lover Pirithous on a quest to the Underworld to
abduct Persephone. Because of his devotion to Pirithous and their journey to
the Underworld together, many authors praise their relationship as the pinnacle
of love and loyalty.
The study of Pirithous and Theseus can help
students better understand the concept the treatment of women, rape, violence, gender and sexuality in the ancient world.
Sources: Euripides’ Hippolytus;
Hyginus, Fabulae 79; 257
YA Novel Recommendations:
Thyia:
According to Greek mythology, Thyia was the daughter of Castalius. In Polygnotus’ mural of the Underworld at Delphi, she
was depicted lovingly supporting Chloris (the daughter of
Orchomenos). Pausanias described the scene tenderly, stating that they had a φιλία (deep tenderness) throughout their
lives.
The study of Chloris and Thyia can help students better understand the role
of women in the ancient world, as well as the complexities of gender and
sexuality.
Sources: Pausanias, Description of Greece X.xxix.5
YA Novel Recommendations:
Tiresias:
According to Greek mythology, Tiresias was a blind prophet who was able
to experience both manhood and womanhood. Seeing two snakes mating in the
mountains, Tiresias struck down one snake, and became a woman. Seven years
later, Tiresias saw the mating snakes again and struck down the other, and
returned to manhood.
The story of
Tiresias can help students better understand gender roles in the ancient
Greco-Roman world.
Sources: Apollodorus, Library III.VI.7;
Fulgentius, Myths II.8; Hyginus, Fabulae 75; Phlegon of Tralles, De
Mirabilibus IV; Vatican Mythographers I.16
YA Novel Recommendations:
*Smith, Ali. The Story of Antigone.
* Tempest, Kae. Hold Your Own **May contain unsuitable material**
* MacLaughlin, Nina. Wake, Siren: Ovid Resung. **May contain unsuitable material**
* Pavese, Cesare. Dialogues with Leuco
Vatican Mythographers:
Similar to the works of Hyginus, the collection known
as the corpus of Vatican Mythographers provides short summaries of Greco-Roman
myths. Some of the myths have Christian-based analyses, but it is evident that
the corpus contains the works of numerous authors.
The Vatican
Mythographers texts can help students better understand Greek and Roman myths
in simple, straightforward Latin prose.
Source: Vatican
Mythographers
YA Novel Recommendations:
Vergil / Virgil:
Vergil was a Roman poet who lived during the 1st century BCE, best known for his epic The Aeneid. The Aeneid is a masterpiece
and among the most important works of Roman literature. It tells the story of
Aeneas, a Trojan refugee who settles in Italy and whose descendants become the
Roman people (and, more specifically, the descendants of the Roman emperor Augustus).
Characters in the Aeneid include Camilla, Nisus and Euryalus,
and Hercules.
The study of
Vergil’s Aeneid can help students better understand Roman culture.
Source: Vergil, Aeneid
YA Novel Recommendations:
* LeGuin, Ursula K. Lavinia
* Graham, Jo. Black Ships **May contain unsuitable material**
Vertumnus
Vertumnus was an Italian god of nature who enjoyed changing shape
and gender frequently. In his wooing of the goddess Pomona, he transformed
himself into a woman to become his own wingman.
The study of Vertumnus can help students better understand the
complexity of gender in the ancient
Greco-Roman world.
Sources: Propertius Eleg.
IV.2, Ovid, Metamorphses XIV
YA Novel Recommendations:
Vestal Virgins:
Vestal Virgins were a group
of elite priestesses who were selected from noble families in order to serve
the state religion of Rome and tend Vesta's sacred flame. They took a thirty-year
vow of chastity; during this time, they gave up their families to serve as a
living symbol of Rome's purity and strength. After their thirty year term was
up, they were liberated from their family's control and enjoyed more rights
than other Roman citizens.
The study of Vestal Virgins
can help students understand the role of women and religion in the ancient
Roman world.
Sources: Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights I.12; Caius,
Inst. 130, 144, 145; Ovid, Fasti VI.283-294;
YA Novel Recommendations:
Virgo: see Astraea
Zeus: see Jupiter
