Boys and Girls: Grammatical Gender in Early Roman Literature

 Latin classrooms tend to teach puella / puer as binary opposites [girl / boy], but the etymology of these terms is very complex. Puer originally meant "child of any gender," and there are numerous fragments of early Roman literature that show it was used as a feminine noun: 

·          Saucia puer filia sumam  I am a wounded girl, a daughter…  [from the Carmen Nelei]  

·         sancta puer Saturni filia  sacred child, daughter of Saturn [Livius Andronicus fr. 12]

Moreover, the word puella is the diminutive form of puer, and also has masculine forms:

·         Cumque hic tam formosus homo ac te dignus puellus. This guy is a handsome man, a youth worthy of you. [Nonius 158.14; Lucilius fr. 162-163]

·         Inde venit Romam tener ipse etiam atque puellus. He came to Rome when he was still a young kid [Lucilius fr. 450-2]

·         Poeni suos soliti dis sacrificare puellos  The Carthaginians are accustomed to sacrifice their children to the gods [Ennius, fr. VII.4]

These examples show that grammatical gender was not initially rigidly fixed to either of these words, but the meanings of the words changed over time.

ENNIUS	MAP:
Name:  Quintus Ennius Date:  239 – 169 BCE Works:  Annals	REGION  1
BIO:	Timeline:
Although widely considered the father of Roman literature, little is known about the works of Ennius and even less is known about his life. It is said that he was born in Rudiae (modern Italy) and served in the Second Punic War. Although he was a prolific author, composing the Annals, (Rome’s first historical epic) and other epic poems, only fragments of these remain extant.	EARLY ROMAN LITERATURE

LIVIUS ANDRONICUS	MAP:
Name:  Livius Andronicus Date:  3rd c. BCE Works:  [fragments]	REGION  1
BIO:	Timeline:
Livius Andronicus is one of Rome’s earliest poets. He is known for translating the works of Homer into Latin, and for his numerous plays. Unfortunately, only fragments of his works remain.	EARLY ROMAN LITERATURE

LUCILIUS	MAP:
Name:  Gaius Lucilius Date:  2nd century BCE Works:  Satires	REGION  1
BIO:	Timeline:
Lucilius was an Italian poet and one of Rome’s earliest satirists. Although his works and his style deeply influenced the genre of Roman satire, most of his writings are lost to history and only fragments remain.	REPUBLICAN ROME

 

What's in a Name? Pueri & Puellae in Latin Love Poetry

When reading Latin love poetry, remember that puella means “girlfriend” and not “girl,” and puer means “boyfriend” and not “boy.”  Textual evidence supports that the Romans used these terms to refer to adult partners old enough to engage in romantic activity. [35] Although no author self-identifies as a puer in the nominative case [often preferring iuvenis 19], the term can be used to refer to another man (often a poet’s rival) [36]. Gender neutral terms (amores, delicias) would often be used in the plural, but sometimes in the singular (amanti/em). It is important to note, however, that although the term deliciae was used often with positive connotations (e.g., the Emperor Titus was called amor et deliciae generis humani [37]), the phrases “puer delicatus” and “in deliciis” tend to refer to a slave [38], not a consenting partner.  Regardless of their age, these people were not capable of consent due to their enslaved status. It is important to not joke about or romanticize poems that use these terms, as this damages the dignity of our youth.

The following chart provides a list of vocabulary for married couples:

Feminae (Women)	Communis (Gender Neutral)	Viri (Men)
Nouns: Domina [1] Femina [2] Mulier [3] Uxor [4] Verbs: nubo, -ere [5]	Nouns: Coniunx [6]    Verbs: coniungo, -ere [7]	Nouns: Dominus [8] Maritus [9] Vir [10] Verbs: in matrimonio habeo, -ere [1]] In matrimonio[con]iungo,   -ere [12] uxorem duco, -ere [13]

 

 

 

The following chart provides a list of vocabulary for dating couples:

IF YOU’RE A…
	Feminae (Women)		Communis (Gender Neutral)	Viri (Men)
You Call Yourself A…	Puella [14] Unica [15]		Amans [16]	Amans -17] Amator [18] Iuvenis[19]
You Call Your Partner A…	Femina: Amica [20] Unica [21]	Vir: Amasius[22] Dominus [23] Iuvenis[24] Vir [25]	Amans [26] Amores [27]  Deliciae [28]	Femina: Amica [29]  Domina [30] Mulier [31] Puella [32]	Vir: Amasius [33] Puer [34]

 

 

 

---

[1] Catullus, Poem 61.31

[2] Catullus, Poem 61.173

[3] Catullus, Poem 70.1

[4] Catullus, Poem 71.178

[5] Martial, Epigram 9.10.1

[6] Catullus, Poem 61.32

[7] Catullus, Poem 64.373

[8] Catullus, Poem 45.14

[9] Catullus, Poem 61.55

[10] Catullus, Poem 61.3

[11] Cicero, On Behalf of Caecina 10.9

[12] Livy, From the Founding of the City 1.46.5

[13] Martial, Epigram 9.10.2

[14] Sulpicia, Poem 5.1

[15] MGH 8:7, line 5

[16] Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.73

[17] Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.73

[18] Ovid, Loves, 1.4.39

[19] Ausonius, Epigram 40.4

[20] Martial, Epigram 7.70.2

[21] MGH 8:7, line 3

[22] Plautus, Cas.589

[23] Ovid, Loves,3.7.11

[24] CIL 6.37965

[24] Plaut. Casina 146

[26] Catullus, Poem 73.3

[27] Catullus, Poem 10.1

[28] Catullus, Poem 22.2

[29] Catullus, Poem 72.3

[30] Propertius, Elegies1.1.21

[31] Catullus, Poem 71.1

[32] Catullus, Poem 71.1

[33] Jacob Mycellus, Lucian’s Dialogue of the Gods14

[34] Martial, Epigram 4.42.14

[35] cum puero ut bello bella puella cubet, Catullus Poem 78.4; vir reliquis, uni sit puer mihi, Martial Epigram 4.42.14

[36] Horace, Odes 1.5.1

[37] Suetonius, Titus 1

[38] Pliny, Natural History, 7.34