One of the popular themes in love poetry is servitium amoris, literally "being enslaved to love," i.e., a poet's willingness to offer complete submission and humiliation to their lover. Although this imagery remains popular in both Roman love poetry and even in music today (e.g., "I'm a slave 4 you," by Britney Spears and "You see these shackles, baby, I'm your slave / I'll let you whip me if I misbehave" in Justin Timberlake's SexyBack), it is important to not mix metaphor with reality. Although Roman historians used anecdotes of tenderness to add drama and pathos to their narrative, it is important to not romanticize the master/slave relationship. When reading the following examples of this theme in Roman history, please remember that these relationships lacked the ability for consent and should not be emulated or idealized today.
Once he had fulfilled his wildest dreams in pleasures and gladiatorial fights, [the Roman Emperor] Commodus then turned to murder plots and began killing the noblemen of Rome.
One of his victims was Julianus the Prefect, whom he used to embrace and kiss in public, even calling him "Father."
Another was Julius Alexander, a man who was condemned for killing a lion while on horseback. Once he realized that assassins were at his door, Julianus killed them under the cover of night; he also killed all of his enemies at Emesa, his birthplace. Once this was done, he hopped on his horse, intending to head for the border; he would have been successful in his escape except he took his bed slave [puerum, quem habebat in deliciis] as his travel companion. While they were making their way as quickly as they could, the lad grew tired, and Julianus refused to leave him behind. Because of this, the couple was overtaken by their pursuers, and both were killed.
Κόμμοδος δὲ ἀπὸ τῶν εὐθυμιῶν καὶ παιδιῶν ἀνανεύων ἐφόνα καὶ τοὺς ἐπιφανεῖς ἄνδρας
διεχειρίζετο: ὧν ἦν καὶ Ἰουλιανὸς ὁ ἔπαρχος, ὃν καὶ δημοσίᾳ περιελάμβανέ τε καὶ
κατεφίλει καὶ πατέρα ὠνόμαζεν, Ἰούλιός τε Ἀλέξανδρος, οὗτος μὲν ὡς καὶ λέοντα ἀπὸ
τοῦ ἵππου κατακοντίσας: [p. 100] [2] ὅστις ἐπειδὴ καὶ τοὺς σφαγέας παρόντας ᾔσθετο,
ἐκείνους τε τῆς νυκτὸς ἐφόνευσε, καὶ τῶν Ἐμεσηνῶν, ὅθεν ἦν, τοὺς ἐχθροὺς τοὺς ἑαυτοῦ
πάντας προσκατεχρήσατο, ποιήσας δὲ ταῦτα ἵππον τε ἀνέβη καὶ πρὸς τοὺς βαρβάρους
ὥρμησε. κἂν [3] ἐξέφυγεν, εἰ μὴ παιδικά τινα συνεπῆκτο: αὐτὸς μὲν γὰρ κράτιστα ἵππευε,
τὸ δὲ μειράκιον καμὸν οὐχ ὑπέμεινε καταλιπεῖν, ἀλλ᾽ ὡς κατελαμβάνετο, ἀπέκτεινε
καὶ ἐκεῖνον καὶ ἑαυτόν..
Commodus autem, ubi expleverat animum voluptatibus ludisque, tum demum caedes meditabatur, occidebatque nobiles viros: in quorum numero fuit Julianus praefectus, quem publice amplecti atque osculari, patremque appellare consueverat: itemque Julius Alexander, is qui iaculis confecerat leonem ex equo: qui postquam interfectores adesse cognovit, eos de nocte trucidavit, et praeterea Emesenorum, ex quibus ipse erat ortus, quotquot inimici, sui fuerant, omnes interemit. Quo facto, equo contendit ad barabaros: effugissetque omnino, nisi puerum, quem habebat in deliciis, comitem cepisset. Quum enim incitato equo iter faceret, adolescentulum defessum labore itineris nolebat relinquere, ac deprehensus ab insecutoribus, et illi et sibi mortem attulit.
--Cassius Dio, Epit. LXXIII.14;
translated from the Greek by Johannis Albertus Fabricius, 1752
***
This is an equally famous instance: Because he feared he’d be tortured by his enemies, Gaius Gracchus asked his slave Philocrates to kill him. Philocrates obeyed, but then took the sword still dripping with his master’s blood and slew himself with it. Some people think this slave’s name was “Euporus;” I don’t really care about the slave’s name, I just admire the strength of his loyalty.
Aeque inlustre quod sequitur. C. Gracchus, ne in potestatem inimicorum perueniret, Philocrati servo suo cervices incidendas praebuit. quas cum celeri ictu abscidisset, gladium cruore domini manantem per sua egit praecordia. Euporum alii hunc vocitatum existimant: ego de nomine nihil disputo, famularis tantum modo fidei robur admiror.
--Valerius Maximus, Memorable Deeds and
Sayings VI.8.3
***
Once he had fortified Munda, Caesar headed for Corduba. Those who had fled the carnage of the battle had taken possession of a bridge. When Caesar arrived, they began to reproach us, thinking only a few of us had survived battle: where could we go? So they made a stand at the bridge. Caesar crossed the river and set up camp.
When Scapula, the mastermind of the uprising, arrived at Corduba after the battle, he assembled his family and freedmen, created a pyre for himself, ordered the best possible last meal, put on his best outfit, and gave money and silver to everyone in the household. Once he was done eating, he anointed himself with perfumes and oils. Finally, he ordered his slave and a freedman who’d been his lover to slice his throat and light his pyre.
[33] Caesar
ex proelio [Munda] munitione circumdata Cordubam venit. Qui ex caede eo
refugerunt, pontem occuparunt. Cum eo ventum esset, conviciare coeperunt, nos
ex proelio paucos superesse; quo fugeremus? Ita pugnare coeperunt de ponte.
Caesar flumen traiecit et castra posuit. Scapula totius seditionis [familiae ac
libertinorum] caput ex proelio Cordubam cum venisset, familiam et libertos
convocavit, pyram sibi extruxit, cenam adferri quam optimam imperavit, item
optimis insternendum vestimentis; pecuniam et argentum in praesentia familiae
donavit. Ipse de tempore cenare, resinam et nardum identidem sibi infundit. Ita
novissimo tempore servum iussit et libertum qui fuisset eius concubinus,
alterum se iugulare, alterum pyram incendere.
--Julius Caesar, de Bello Hispaniensi 33
***
As [Galba] marched on the city of Rome, Nero was abandoned by everyone except his eunuch [Sporus], whom he had tried to shape into a woman; Nero stabbed himself, begging someone to kill him, but he didn’t deserve even that ounce of mercy.
Ac ni Galba, qui
Hispaniae praesidebat, cognito mandatum sui exitium quamquam senecta aetate
imperio correpto subvenisset, tantum facinus haud dubie patraretur. 16 Verum
eius adventu desertus undique nisi ab spadone, quem quondam exsectum formare in
mulierem tentaverat, semet ictu transegit, cum implorans percussorem diu ne ad
mortem quidem meruisset cuiusquam officium.
--Sextus Aurelius
Victor 5.15
Julius Caesar (100 - 44BCE) is without a doubt one of the most influential Romans in history. His name became the title of monarchy (Kaiser in German; Czar in Russian), and celebrated in food (Caesar dressing, Kaiser rolls), but despite his major impact on world history, this larger-than-life figure has a complex role in history.
Little is known about the life of Valerius Maximus except that he wrote during the reign of the emperor Tiberius. His work, Memorable Deeds and Sayings, is a collection of examples from Roman and world history categorized by theme for the purpose of rhetorical exercises.
Cassius Dio was a Roman statesman born in Nicaea, Bithynia who wrote an 80 volume work on Roman history that spanned from Aeneas’ flight from Troy to the rise of the emperor Severus Alexander. Although much of his history is lost, the fragments that we do have show rare insight into the Roman world.
