Dux Femina Facti: Zenobia, A Better Warrior Than A Man, SHA Duorum Gallienorum 13.1-5

Zenobia vs. Gallienus

Name: Scriptores Historia Augusta Date:   Unknown Region:    Unknown Citation:     Life of The Two Gallieni 13.1-5

Often, authors will use depictions of other nations as a mirror for their own society. Here Zenobia’s exploits are used to criticize Gallienus’ masculinity and ability to rule effectively.  

At that time, Odenathus was killed by his cousin’s plot. He was killed along with his son Herodes, whom he had also named emperor. Since his remaining children Herennianus and Timolaus were too young to rule, his wife Zenobia took the throne. She ruled for a long time, not in a womanly manner, or like a girl, but cleverly and boldly, not only dissimilar to Gallienus (who any woman could do a better job than), but also even other rulers. For when Gallienus heard that Odenathus died, he gathered his forces for a war against the Persians in a too-little-too-late attempt to avenge his father. He assembled the troops and managed the war as a clever leader through the management of Heraclian. However, when Heraclian set out against the Persians, he was defeated by the Palmyrans and lost all of his soldiers, since Zenobia was ruling both Palmyra and many other eastern cities in a manly fashion.

Zenobia vs. Gallienus

Per idem tempus Odenatus insidiis consobrini sui interemptus est cum filio Herode, quem et ipsum imperatorem appellaverat. Cum Zenobia, uxor eius, quod parvuli essent filii eius, qui supererant, Herennianus et Timolaus, ipsa suscepit imperium diuque rexit, non muliebriter neque more femineo, sed non solum Gallieno, quo quae virgo melius imperare potuisset, verum etiam multis imperatoribus fortius atque solertius. Gallienus sane, ubi ei nuntiatum Odenatum interemptum, bellum Persis ad seram nimis vindictam patris paravit collectisque per Heraclianum ducem militibus sollertis principis rem gerebat. Qui tamen Heraclianus, cum contra Persas profectus esset, a Palmyrenis victus omnes, quos paraverat, milites perdidit, Zenobia Palmyrenis et orientalibus plerisque viriliter imperante.

Scriptores Historiae Augustae Little is known about the author(s) of the Historia Augusta; even internal evidence within the text is either falsified, skewed or utterly fictitious. Although attributed to six different authors, the text was likely written by a single author living during the 4th century CE. It is a series of imperial biographies modeled after the works of Suetonius; these biographies cover the reigns of the emperors Hadrian through Carus.

Dux Femina Facti: Zenobia, the Warrior Queen, SHA Trig. Tyr. 30.1-3

Zenobia, Following in the Footsteps of Greatness

Name: Scriptores Historia Augusta Date:   Unknown Region:    Unknown Citation:     Life of The Thirty Tyrants 30.1-3

Often, authors will use depictions of other nations as a mirror for their own society. Here Zenobia’s exploits are used to criticize Gallienus’ masculinity and ability to rule effectively.  

All decency is gone, when the broken down state has come to such a new low that on good-for-nothing Gallienus’ watch that even women can rule well—even foreign ones! For Zenobia, a foreigner (about whom much ink has been spilled) who boasted that she was descended from Cleopatra and the Ptolemies of Egypt, took up rule after the death of her husband Odenathus. Wearing a military cloak on her shoulders, and dressed like Dido, she took up the crown in the name of her sons Herennianus and Timolaus, and ruled longer than a woman should. This woman ruled while Gallienus was in charge at Rome and while Claudius was distracted by his war with the Goths, and was just barely (but ultimately) defeated by Aurelian. Finally defeated by him, she was led in triumph at Rome and gave up her throne.

Zenobia, Following in the Footsteps of Greatness

Omnis iam consumptus est pudor, si quidem fatigata re publica eo usque perventum est, ut Gallieno nequissime agente optime etiam mulieres imperarent, et quidem peregrinae. Peregrina enim, nomine Zenobia, de qua multa iam dicta sunt, quae se de Cleopatrarum Ptolemaeorumque gente iactaret, post Odenatum maritum imperiali sagulo perfuso per umeros, habitu Didonis ornata, diademate etiam accepto, nomine filiorum Herenniani et Timolai diutius, quam femineus sexus patiebatur, imperavit. Si quidem Gallieno adhuc regente rem publicam regale mulier superba munus obtinuit et Claudio bellis Gothicis occupato vix denique ab Aureliano victa et triumphata concessit in iura Romana.

Scriptores Historiae Augustae Little is known about the author(s) of the Historia Augusta; even internal evidence within the text is either falsified, skewed or utterly fictitious. Although attributed to six different authors, the text was likely written by a single author living during the 4th century CE. It is a series of imperial biographies modeled after the works of Suetonius; these biographies cover the reigns of the emperors Hadrian through Carus.

A More Perfect Union? Using the Gender Roles of Other Nations to Critique Your Own, Tacitus, Germania 18

Gender Roles in Germanic Marriage Rites

Name:   Tacitus Date:    56 – 117 CE Region:   [modern Italy]  Citation:  Germania 18

Often, authors will use depictions of other nations as a mirror for their own society. Here Tacitus is glamorizing his depiction of Germanic marriages to criticize Roman women and marriages.

 

[Germanic tribes] treat marriage very seriously, and it’s the best part of their value system. Of all the other barbaric tribes out there, the Germans are the only ones who practice monogamy. Of course, there are a handful of exceptions, but the noblemen who have multiple wives do so out of political gain, and definitely not out of lust. The wife doesn’t provide a dowry to her husband; instead, the husband gives a dowry to his wife. Their parents and kin evaluate what he has to offer in the relationship—and these aren’t trifles that women nag for, or other things that new brides have. No, these are a yoke of bulls, a bridled horse, and a shield, spear, and sword. The wife accepts these gifts, and in turn, gives the same to her husband. This is seen as the highest bond, the holy rite of marriage that their religion dictates. To keep the woman from thinking that she is immune from hard work or military valor, she is warned at the start of the marriage that she is entering the relationship as a partner to her husband’s exploits and dangers, in both war and peace. This is what the team of bulls, the bridled horse, and the set of armor represents. They live together as one, and they die together as one. She is to accept this union, which she will in turn pass down untouched and pure to her children, her daughters-in-law, and her descendants.

Tacitus [Publius Cornelius Tacitus; 56 – 117 CE, modern Italy] is considered one of the best Roman historians of the 1st century CE. He wrote numerous works, including the Annals [Roman history beginning with the death of the Emperor Augustus and the rise of Tiberius], the Histories [about the Year of the Four Emperors], and a biography of his father-in,-law, the Agricola.

Gender Roles in Germanic Marriage Rites

Quamquam severa illic matrimonia, nec ullam morum partem magis laudaveris. Nam prope soi barbarorum singulis uxoribus contenti sunt, exceptis admodum paucis, qui non libidine, sed ob nobilitatem plurimis nuptiis ambiuntur. Dotem non uxor marito, sed uxori maritus offert. Intersunt parentes et propinqui ac munera probant, munera non ad delicias muliebres quaesita nec quibus nova nupta comatur, sed boves et frenatum equum et scutum cum framea gladioque. In haec munera uxor accipitur, atque in vicem ipsa armorum aliquid viro adfert: hoc maximum vinculum, haec arcana sacra, hos coniugales deos arbitrantur. Ne se mulier extra virtutem cogitations extraque bellorum casus putet, ipsis incipientis matrimonii auspiciis admonetur venire se laborum periculorumque sociam, idem in pace, idem in proelio passuram ausuramque. Hoc iuncti boves, hoc paratus equus, hoc data arma denuntiant. Sic vivendum, sic pereundum: accipere se, quae liberis inviolate ac Digna reddat, quae nurus accipiant, rursusque ad nepotes referantur.

Overpowered by a Single Woman: The Spartans vs. The Courage of Telesilla

Name: Michele Marullo Tarchaniota Date: 1330 – 1408 CE Region:   Constantinople [modern Turkey] / Volterra [modern Italy] Citation:  Epith. Telesillae; Contantinopalitani Epigrammaton,  Book 4

 If you ask where she’s from,

Her homeland was Argos.

If you ask what her name was

Her noble name was Telesilla.

If you want to know her skillset or her courage

I’m embarrassed to tell you.

The Muse can tell you about her skills,

The Spartans can tell you about her courage.

For it’s embarrassing to say that Sparta

Was overcome by  single woman

Even though it’s Spartan custom

To always tell the truth.  

Si patriam, patria est Argos. Si nomina quaeris

Scire, Telesillae nobile nomen erat,

At si artes animosque, vetat pudor hiscere de me.

Musa sed has dicent hos lacedaemonii.

Nam quis pudeat Sparten cessisse puellae

Vera tamen fari mos Lacedaemoniis.

 

Michele Marullo Tarcaniota [1458 – 1500 CE, Constantinople, modern Turkey / Volterra, modern Italy] was a famous scholar and author known for his Greco-Roman mythology-themed poetry.

The Transformation of Iphis

A 16th Century Retelling of the Transformation of Iphis

Name: Johannes Posthius Date:   1537 – 1597 CE Region: [modern Germany] Citation:  Poems Inspired by Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Book 9

Iphis, your father Lygdus betrothed you to Ianthe,

Not knowing that you didn’t have a man’s body.

But Isis came to the rescue:

For your mother Telethusa watched in wonder

As her Iphis entered the temple a girl

And left it as a boy.  

A 16th Century Retelling of the Transformation of Iphis

Iphi tibi Lygdus genitor despondet Ianthen,

Sed nihil heu tete nescit habere viri.

Adfert Isis opem, nam quae modo templa subibas

femina, te puerum mater abire videt.

Johannes Posthius [1537 – 1597 CE, modern Germany] was a famous German poet and scholar.

A Roundabout Curse: Camilla's Demise, Servius, In Aen.11.8.42

Name: Servius Date: 4th – 5th century CE Region: [modern Italy] Citation:   Commentary on the Aeneid, 11.8.42

“You paid the cruel punishment...” A person ‘pays,’ who uses money. Here it is used as a metaphor for the death penalty. This has a fairly long explanation: the Volsci come from the Hylinas River, and Amazons are said to live there. Camilla ‘paid the penalty’ because she fought against the Trojans, when her predecessor agreed to be their allies [i.e, Penthesilea].

 

crudele luisti supplicium iuris verbo usus est. 'luere' enim debere dicitur qui pecuniam solvit: quod hic usurpatum est in capitis poenam. quidam huius loci longam expositionem tradunt: Volscos a Volscatibus Hylinis originem ducere, †exclytas autem, inter quos Amazones sunt, regionem Illyricam incolere. luisse ergo supplicium Camillam dicunt, quae adversum Troianos arma tulerit, quibus maiores eius auxilium constat tulisse, id est Penthesileam.

 

Servius [Maurus Servius Honoratus; 4th – 5th century CE] Servius’ name is unfortunately the only thing we know of this author. Little is known about the author or manuscript tradition for the grammatical commentary of Vergil’s Aeneid.

"Do not call me 'lord,' for I am a lady," Bassiana / Elegabalus in Zonoras' History

Not A Lord, But a Lady

Name: Joannes Zonoras Date: 1070 – 1140 CE  Region:  Constantinople [modern Turkey] Citation:  Excerpts from Roman History 12.14d - 15b

  [Bassiana / Elegabalus] was not content with this alone; they also raced chariots, danced, and even wanted to be a bride. They wanted to be bound legally to their husband, whom they titled Caesar. They enjoyed being called “lady” and “empress,” wore a veil, spun wool, and used makeup. They shaved their face to seem feminine. Their husband was a former slave named Hierocles...

When he said to them, “Hail, Lord Emperor,” they would curtsy like a woman, and replied with a wink, “Don’t call me, ‘lord,’ for I am a lady.”

καὶ οὐχ οὕτω μόνον ἠσέλγαινεν, ἡρματηλάτει τε καὶ ὠρχεῖτο ἀλλὰ καὶ ἄνδρα σχεῖν ἤθελεν ἕνα ὥσπερ γαμέτην δή τινα νόμιμον, καὶ Καίσαρα αὐτὸν ἐβούλετο προχειρίσασθαι καὶ δέσποινα καὶ βασιλὶς ὠνομάζετο καὶ ἐφόρει κεκρύφαλον καὶ ἐριούργει καὶ τοὺς ὀφθαλμοὺς ὑπεγράφετο. ἅπαξ τε τὸ γένειον ἀποκείρας μετέπειτα ἐψιλίζετο ἵνα δοκοίη γυνή. ὁ δὲ ἀνὴρ αὐτῆς Καρικὸν ἦν ἀνδράποδον, ἐκαλεῖτο δ ̓ Ἱεροκλῆς.. [1] καί τις δ’  Ἀυρήλιος καλὸς μὲν καὶ πᾶν τὸ σῶμα τὰ δ ̓ αἰδοῖα φέρων ὑπερμεγέθη ἐμηνύθη αὐτῷ καὶ αὐτίκα ὑπὸ πομπῇ μεγαλοπρεπεῖ προσήχθη. ᾧ προσειπόντι “χαῖρε κύριε αὐτόκρατορ,” ἐκεῖνος θρύψει γυναικώδει τὸν αὐχένα παρεγκλίνας καὶ ἐπιμύσας βραχύ τι τὰ ὄμματα, “μή με λέγε κύριον,” ἔφη, “ἐγὼ γὰρ κυρία εἰμί.”

Neque bis flagitiis contentus, aurigabat, saltabat, nubere etiam volebat, ut unum legitimum maritum haberet, quem Caesarem designaret: ac dominae et imperatricis nomine gaudebat, calanticam gestans, et lanam tractans, et genas pingens. Barbam semel quoquo abrasam, postea psilothro curabat ut muliercula videretur, cuius mulierculae maritus erat Caricum mancipium, nomine Hierocles... Qui cum ei dixisset: “Salve, domine imperator,” ille muliebri mollitie collo inclinato, et oculis nonnihil conniventibus: “Ne me dominum,” inquit, “dixeris, domina enim sum.”  Translated into Latin by Berthold Georg Niebuhr

[1]  Zonoras continues with misogynistic language which will not be published here.

Joannas Zonoras [1074 – 1145 CE, Modern Turkey] was an 11th century Byzantine scholar known for his Excerpts from Roman History.